Studying the climatic and environmental changes on different time scales in inland arid regions of Asia can greatly improve our understanding of climatic influences for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the context of global change. Pollen, as a remnant of seed plants, is sensitive to environmental factors including precipitation, temperature and altitude, and is a classic proxy in environmental reconstruction. In the last two decades, great progress in the application of palynology to inland areas of Asia has highlighted the role of palynology in paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental research. The main progress is as follows. (1) On the tectonic time scale of the late Cenozoic, the palaeoclimatological sequence has been established on the basis of pollen percentage, concentration and taxon. Pollen data have revealed a continuous enhancement of drought in the inland arid region of Asia, in contrast to evidence acquired based on other proxies. (2) In the late Quaternary, an increase in herbaceous plants further supports the intensification of drought associated with global cooling. In more detail, the palynological record shows a glacial-interglacial pattern consistent with changes in global ice volume. (3) The Holocene pollen record has been established at a high resolution and across a wide range of inland areas. In general, it presents an arid grassland environment in the early Holocene, followed by the development of woody plants in the mid- to late-Holocene climate optimum. This pattern is related to moisture changes in areas dominated by the westerlies. There are also significant regional differences in the pattern and amplitude of vegetation response to the Holocene environment. (4) Modern pollen studies based on vegetation surveys, meteorological data and statistics show that topsoil palynology can better reflect regional vegetation types (e.g., grassland, meadow, desert). Drier climates yield higher pollen contents of drought-tolerant plants such as Chenopodioideae, Ephedra, and Nitriaria, while contents of Artemisia and Poaceae are greater under humid climates. Besides these achievements, problems remain in palynological research: for example, pollen extraction, identification, interpretation, and quantitative reconstruction. In the future, we encourage strengthened interdisciplinary cooperation to improve experimental methods and innovation. Firstly, we should strengthen palynological classification and improve the skill of identification; secondly, laboratory experiments are needed to better constrain pollen transport dynamics in water and air; thirdly, more rigorous mathematical principles will improve the reliability of reconstructions and deepen the knowledge of plant geography; and finally, new areas and methods in palynology should be explored, for example DNA, UV-B and isotopic analysis. It is expected that palynology will continue to develop, and we hope it will continue to play an important role in the study of past climatic and environmental changes.

It is feasible to study the mechanical characteristics of coarse-grained soil by simulated granular materials such as glass beads. In this paper, 3 mm diameter glass beads are used to conduct drained and undrained triaxial tests under the condition of different confining pressures to explore their strength, deformation and critical state characteristics. Specifically, the influence of drainage and confining pressure on the stick-slip phenomenon of glass beads is reported. The experimental findings from triaxial tests show that the stress-strain relationship of glass beads softens when the confining pressure is high. Under the undrained condition, the initial modulus increases with the increase in the confining pressure. In contrast, it is not significantly affected by the confining pressure under the drained condition. It is quite evident that the glass beads hardly contract during the shearing process, and their stress path is approximately a segmented straight line. The slope of the critical state line under the undrained condition is greater than that under the drained condition, and the friction angle of the glass beads under the undrained and drained conditions is calculated to be 28.1° and 29.5°, respectively. The phenomenon of stick-slip has been depicted for the different test conditions, and the stick-slip amplitude linearly increases with the confining pressure, especially in the undrained condition. It is also found that the maximum energy released from the phenomenon of stick-slip increases linearly with the confining pressure.

The behavior and fates of environmental pollutants within the cryosphere and the associated environmental impacts are of increasing concerns in the context of global warming. The Tibetan Plateau (TP), also known as the "Third Pole", represents one of the most important cryospheric regions in the world. Mercury (Hg) is recognized as a global pollutant. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of Hg concentration levels, pools and spatio-temporal distribution in cryospheric environments (e.g., glacier, permafrost), and its transfer and potential cycle in the TP cryospheric region. Transboundary transport of anthropogenic Hg from the surrounding heavily-polluted regions, such as South and Southeast Asia, provides significant sources of atmospheric Hg depositions onto the TP cryosphere. We concluded that the melting of the cryosphere on the TP represents an increasing source of Hg and brings a risk to the TP environment. In addition, global warming acts as an important catalyst accelerating the release of legacy Hg from the melting cryosphere, adversely impacting ecosystems and biological health. Furthermore, we emphasize on the remaining gaps and proposed issues needed to be addressed in future work, including enhancing our knowledge on some key release pathways and the related environmental effects of Hg in the cryospheric region, integrated observation and consideration of Hg distribution, migration and cycle processes at a key region, and uses of Hg isotopic technical and Hg models to improve the understanding of Hg cycling in the TP cryospheric region.

Wedge-like structures filled with silty sand penetrate Quaternary fluvial and aeolian sediments and, in places, Tertiary bedrock on the Ordos Plateau, North China. The wedges reflect thermal contraction cracking of either permafrost or seasonal frost during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Wedges of about 1 m in depth form polygonal nets of 2-3 m in diameter (type B). They contrast with wedges of 3-4 m in depth that form polygons of 10-15 m in diameter (type A). This review focuses upon the highly variable size of the inferred polygon nets and discusses the problem of differentiating between seasonally and perennially frozen ground, or between seasonal frost and permafrost.

The satellite-based water vapor stable isotope measurements have been widely used in modern hydrological and atmospheric studies. Their use is important for arid areas where the precipitation events are limited, and below-cloud evaporation is strong. This study presents the spatial and temporal characteristics of water vapor isotopologue across the Tianshan Mountains in arid central Asia using the NASA Aura Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES). The near-surface water vapor stable isotopes are enriched in summer and depleted in winter, consistent with the seasonality of precipitation isotopes. From the surface to 200 hPa, the isotope values in water vapor show a decreasing trend as the atmospheric pressure decreases and elevation rises. The vapor isotope values in the lower atmosphere in the southern basin of the Tianshan Mountains are usually higher than that in the northern basin, and the seasonal difference in vapor isotopes is slightly more significant in the southern basin. In addition, bottom vapor isotopologue in summer shows a depletion trend from west to east, consistent with the rainout effect of the westerly moisture path in central Asia. The isotopic signature provided by the TES is helpful to understand the moisture transport and below-cloud processes influencing stable water isotopes in meteoric water.

In Northeast China, permafrost advanced and retreated several times under the influences of fluctuating paleo-climates and paleo-environments since the Late Pleistocene. During the last 60 years, many new data were obtained and studies were conducted on the evolution of permafrost in Northeast China, but so far no systematic summary and review have been made. Based on sedimentary sequences, remains of past permafrost, paleo-flora and -fauna records, and dating data, permafrost evolution since the Late Pleistocene has been analyzed and reconstructed in this paper. Paleo-temperatures reconstructed from the remains of past permafrost and those from paleo-flora and -fauna are compared, and thus the southern limit of permafrost (SLP) in each climate period is inferred by the relationship of the permafrost distribution and the mean annual air/ground temperatures (MAAT/MAGT). Thus, the evolutionary history of permafrost is here divided into five stages:(1) the Late Pleistocene (Last Glaciation, or LG) (65 to 10-8.5 ka), the Last Glaciation Maximum (LGM, 21-13 ka) in particular, the coldest period in the latest history with a cooling of about 6~10℃, characterized by extensive occurrences of glaciation, flourishing Mammathas-Coelodonta Faunal Complex (MCFC), widespread aeolian deposits, and significant sea level lowering, and permafrost greatly expanded southwards almost to the coastal plains (37°N-41°N); (2) the Holocene Megathermal Period (HMP, 8.5-7.0 to 4.0-3.0 ka), 3~5℃ warmer than today, permafrost retreated to about 52°N; (3) the Late Holocene Cold Period (Neoglaciation) (4.0-3.0 to 1.0-0.5 ka), a cooling of 1~3℃, some earlier thawed permafrost was refrozen or attached, and the SLP invaded southwards to 46°N; (4) the Little Ice Age (LIA, 500 to 100-150 a), the latest cold period with significant permafrost expansion; and (5) climate warming since the last century, during which Northeast China has undergone extensive permafrost degradation. The frequent and substantial expansions and retreats of permafrost have greatly impacted cold-region environments in Northeast China. North of the SLP during the HMP, or in the present continuous permafrost zone, the existing permafrost was largely formed during the LG and was later overlapped by the permafrost formed in the Neoglaciation. To the south, it was formed in the Neoglaciation. However, many aspects of permafrost evolution still await further investigations, such as data integration, numerical reconstruction, and merging of Chinese permafrost history with those of bordering regions as well as collaboration with related disciplines. Of these, studies on the evolution and degradation of permafrost during the past 150 years and its hydrological, ecological, and environmental impacts should be prioritized.

Land surface actual evapotranspiration is an important process that influences the Earth's energy and water cycles and determines the water and heat transfer in the soil-vegetation-atmosphere system. Meanwhile, the cryosphere's hydrological process is receiving extensive attention, and its water problem needs to be understood from multiple perspectives. As the main part of the Chinese cryosphere, the Tibetan Plateau faces significant climate and environmental change. There are active interaction and pronounced feedback between the environment and ET_a in the cryosphere. This article mainly focuses on the research progress of ET_a in the Tibetan Plateau. It first reviews the ET_a process, characteristics, and impact factors of typical underlying surfaces in the Tibetan Plateau (alpine meadows, alpine steppes, alpine wetlands, alpine forests, lakes). Then it compares the temporal and spatial variations of ET_a at different scales. In addition, considering the current greening of cryosphere vegetation due to climate change, it discusses the relationship between vegetation greening and transpiration to help clarify how vegetation activities are related to the regional water cycle and surface energy budget.

Patterns in species geographic range size are relatively well-known for vertebrates, but still poorly known for plants. Contrasts of these patterns between groups have rarely been investigated. With a detailed flora and fauna distribution database of Xinjiang, China, we used regression methods, redundancy analysis and random forests to explore the relationship of environment and body size with the geographic range size of plants, mammals and birds in Xinjiang and contrast these patterns between plants and animals. We found positive correlations between species range size and body size. The range size of plants was more influenced by water variables, while that of mammals and birds was largely influenced by temperature variables. The productivity variable, i.e., Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) was far more correlated with range size than climatic variables for both plants and animals, suggesting that vegetation productivity inferred from remote sensing data may be a good predictor of species range size for both plants and animals.

Aerosol samples were collected at altitudes from 584 m a.s.l. to 3,804 m a.s.l. at seven sites of the eastern Tianshan. The occurrence, distribution, and possible sources of 47 trace metals-including alkali metals and alkali earth metals, transition metals, lanthanoids, and heavy metals-were investigated. It was found that four sampling sites (Shuinichang, 1,691 m a.s.l.; Urumqi City, 809 m a.s.l.; FuKang Station, 584 m a.s.l.; and Bogeda Glacier No. 4, 3,613 m a.s.l.) were contaminated mainly by heavy metals. Other three high-altitude sites (Urumqi Glacier No. 1, 3,804 m a.s.l.; WangFeng road-maintenance station, 3,039 m a.s.l.; and Tianshan Glaciology Station, 2,135 m a.s.l.) were not polluted. The aerosol particles were clustered into two dominant types:crust-originated particles and pollution-derived particles. Aerosols from UG1, WF, and TGS were characterized by crust-originated particles such as clay, plagioclase, dolomite, alkali feldspar, and biotite; while those from SNC, Urumqi, FK, and BG4 were characterized by high content of Cl-rich particles, S-rich particles, and soot. The backward-trajectories results indicated that air masses arriving at SNC, Urumqi, FK, and BG4 were identified as the more polluted source, when compared to the short-range air mass transport from the North to UGI and WF. Relatively lower altitude, as well as terrain blocking, might be another important reason for the gradient difference in pollution influence among these seven places in the Urumqi River Basin.

The Horqin Sandy Land of northeastern China was originally a grassland with plenty of water and lush vegetation dominated by palatable grass species along with sparsely scattered woody species. However, it has experienced severe desertification in recent decades due to its fragile ecology together with inappropriate human activities. Currently, the landscape of the Horqin Sandy Land is dominated by irrigated croplands and sand dunes with different degrees of vegetation cover, as the region has become the most important part of the semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone of northern China. In this study, we compared soil physical and chemical properties under different land-use and cover types (irrigated cropland, rainfed cropland, sandy grassland, fixed dunes, and mobile dunes). We found that soil particle size distribution; organic C, total N, and total mineral element, microelement, and available microelement and nutrient contents; pH; CEC; and bulk density differed significantly among the land-use and cover types. In general, soil quality was highest in the cropland, intermediate in the sandy grassland, and lowest in the dunes. The most important soil quality attribute, soil organic carbon (SOC) storage, decreased in the following order: irrigated cropland (5,699 g/m²) > sandy grassland (3,390 g/m²) > rainfed cropland (2,411 g/m²) > fixed dunes (821 g/m²) > mobile dunes (463 g/m²). SOC was significantly positively correlated with a large proportion of the other soil physico-chemical parameters. Our results suggest that the key issue in restoration of the degraded soils will be to increase SOC storage, which would also create a high potential for sequestering soil C in desertified areas of the Horqin Sandy Land.

Groundwater is a key factor controlling the growth of vegetation in desert riparian systems. It is important to recognise how groundwater changes affect the riparian forest ecosystem. This information will not only help us to understand the ecological and hydrological process of the riparian forest but also provide support for ecological recovery of riparian forests and water-resources management of arid inland river basins. This study aims to estimate the suitability of the Water Vegetation Energy and Solute Modelling (WAVES) model to simulate the Ejina Desert riparian forest ecosystem changes, China, to assess effects of groundwater-depth change on the canopy leaf area index (LAI) and water budgets, and to ascertain the suitable groundwater depth for preserving the stability and structure of desert riparian forest. Results demonstrated that the WAVES model can simulate changes to ecological and hydrological processes. The annual mean water consumption of a Tamarix chinensis riparian forest was less than that of a Populus euphratica riparian forest, and the canopy LAI of the desert riparian forest should increase as groundwater depth decreases. Groundwater changes could significantly influence water budgets for T. chinensis and P. euphratica riparian forests and show the positive and negative effects on vegetation growth and water budgets of riparian forests. Maintaining the annual mean groundwater depth at around 1.7?2.7 m is critical for healthy riparian forest growth. This study highlights the importance of considering groundwater-change impacts on desert riparian vegetation and water-balance applications in ecological restoration and efficient water-resource management in the Heihe River Basin.

The soil-freezing characteristic curve (SFCC), which represents the relationship between unfrozen water content and sub-freezing temperature (or suction at ice-water interface) in a freezing soil, can be used for understanding the transportation of heat, water, and solute in frozen soils. In this paper, the soil freezing process and the similarity between the SFCC of saturated frozen soil and soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) of unfrozen unsaturated soil are reviewed. Based on similar characteristics between SWCC and SFCC, a conceptual SFCC is drawn for illustrating the main features of soil freezing and thawing processes. Various SFCC expressions from the literature are summarized. Four widely used expressions (i.e., power relationship, exponential relationship, van Genuchten 1980 equation and Fredlund and Xing 1994 equation) are evaluated using published experimental data on four different soils (i.e., sandy loam, silt, clay, and saline silt). Results show that the exponential relationship and van Genuchten (1980) equation are more suitable for sandy soils. The simple power relationship can be used to reasonably best-fit the SFCC for soils with different particle sizes; however, it exhibits limitations when fitting the saline silt data. The Fredlund and Xing (1994) equation is suitable for fitting the SFCCs for all soils studied in this paper.

Ice documentation and response to prominent warming, especially after the 1990s, is further investigated because it is concerned whether ice records have absence. A δ¹⁸O series of a Laohugou (LHG) shallow ice core (20.12 m) in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau was reconstructed covering the period of 1960-2006. The ice core δ¹⁸O record had significant positive correlations with the warm season (May-September) air temperatures at adjacent meteorological stations and the 500 hPa temperatures in boreal China, indicating that the δ¹⁸O record could be considered a credible proxy of regional temperature. A clear, cold temperature event in 1967 and rapid warming after the 1990s were captured in the LHG δ¹⁸O series, revealing that it could record extreme air-temperature events on both regional and global scales. The LHG δ¹⁸O variations had evident positive correlations with both the summer surface outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) in the Mongolia region and the summer meridional wind at 500 hPa in the LHG region during 1960-2006, suggesting that the increased OLR in the Mongolia region might have intensified the Mongolia Low and expanded the pressure gradient to the LHG region (the Shulehe High), which would have pushed the westerlies further north and suppressed southward incursions of cold air into the LHG region, and thus augmented the temperature rise. The regional atmospheric circulation difference (1985-2006 minus 1960-1984) suggested that the anticyclone in the Mongolia region might have developed the easterly wind, which transported warmer air from the east toward the LHG region and weakened the cold penetration of the westerlies, resulting in the temperature rise since the middle 1980s.

Samples from the Horqin sandy land were exposed to a series of wind velocities, and sink particles were collected at the end of the diffusion section of a wind tunnel. Grain sizes of collected samples show great variation because of the granularity difference of the surface samples. The original samples show lower average content of SiO₂ and higher average content of Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, MgO, CaO, Na₂O, and K₂O than collected samples. Compared with other dust source areas in China, the Horqin sandy land had higher content of Zr, Ba, SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and K₂O. Compared with the average upper continental crust (UCC) composition, surface samples were rich in the content of Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, La, Nd. Geochemistry characteristics of fine grain components of the Horqin sandy land differ from those from other dust source regions, because fine-grained particles in the Horqin sandy land were mostly derived from various local deposits formed in its unique depositional environments influenced by several tectonic activities.

Satellite remote sensing is widely used to estimate snow depth and snow water equivalent (SWE) which are two key parameters in global and regional climatic and hydrological systems. Remote sensing techniques for snow depth mainly include passive microwave remote sensing, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Interferometric SAR (InSAR) and Lidar. Among them, passive microwave remote sensing is the most efficient way to estimate large scale snow depth due to its long time series data and high temporal frequency. Passive microwave remote sensing was utilized to monitor snow depth starting in 1978 when Nimbus-7 satellite with Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) freely provided multi-frequency passive microwave data. SAR was found to have ability to detecting snow depth in 1980s, but was not used for satellite active microwave remote sensing until 2000. Satellite Lidar was utilized to detect snow depth since the later period of 2000s. The estimation of snow depth from space has experienced significant progress during the last 40 years. However, challenges or uncertainties still exist for snow depth estimation from space. In this study, we review the main space remote sensing techniques of snow depth retrieval. Typical algorithms and their principles are described, and problems or disadvantages of these algorithms are discussed. It was found that snow depth retrieval in mountainous area is a big challenge for satellite remote sensing due to complicated topography. With increasing number of freely available SAR data, future new methods combing passive and active microwave remote sensing are needed for improving the retrieval accuracy of snow depth in mountainous areas.

Ecophysiological responses to drought stress of Populus euphratica in Alashan Desert Eco-hydrology Experimental Research Station were investigated. Results show that under mild and moderate drought stress, stomatal length, aperture, area and density is likely to decrease in the early days, but afterwards this is likely to recovery with treatment over the passage of treatment time. Under severe drought stress, these properties appear to decline continuously. However, after 45 days of drought-stress treatment, the decline is not as noticeable as before, indicating that Populus euphratica could possibly reduce water evaporation by shutting down the stoma, leading to an improvement in its water use efficiency with better survival under drought stress conditions. The leaf area first decreases, and then increases under mild and moderate drought stress conditions, with the average values under different degree of stress found to be approximately 129.52, 120.08, 116.63 and 107.28 cm², respectively. Under moderate stress conditions, the leaf water potential appears to show a continuous decline where the average values under different degree of stress are found to be -1.27, -1.85, -4.29 and -4.80 MPa, respectively. In terms of proline content, the results demonstrate that this factor appears to increase significantly under moderate and severe drought stress conditions. Especially under severe drought stress condition, the content is found to be more than 700 μg/g. Ranging over average values of 14.64 and 15.90 nmol/g under moderate and severe drought stress, respectively, Malondialdehyde content is found to increase quite rapidly under moderate and severe drought stress conditions at first, which then appears to decrease gradually with the treatment over time.

Climate condition over a region is mostly determined by the changes in precipitation, temperature and evaporation as the key climate variables. The countries belong to the Belt and Road region are subjected to face strong changes in future climate. In this paper, we used five global climate models from the latest Sixth Phase of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) to evaluate future climate changes under seven combined scenarios of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and the Representative Concentration Pathways (SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP4-3.4, SSP4-6.0 and SSP5-8.5) across the Belt and Road region. This study focuses on undertaking a climate change assessment in terms of future changes in precipitation, air temperature and actual evaporation for the three distinct periods as near-term period (2021-2040), mid-term period (2041-2060) and long-term period (2081-2100). To discern spatial structure, K?ppen-Geiger Climate Classification method has been used in this study. In relative terms, the results indicate an evidence of increasing tendency in all the studied variables, where significant changes are anticipated mostly in the long-term period. In addition to, though it is projected to increase under all the SSP-RCP scenarios, greater increases will be happened under higher emission scenarios (SSP5-8.5 and SSP3-7.0). For temperature, robust increases in annual mean temperature is found to be 5.2 °C under SSP3-7.0, and highest 7.0 °C under SSP5-8.5 scenario relative to present day. The northern part especially Cold and Polar region will be even more warmer (+6.1 °C) in the long-term (2081-2100) period under SSP5-8.5. Similarly, at the end of the twenty-first century, annual mean precipitation is inclined to increase largely with a rate of 2.1% and 2.8% per decade under SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 respectively. Spatial distribution demonstrates that the largest precipitation increases are to be pronounced in the Polar and Arid regions. Precipitation is projected to increase with response to increasing warming most of the regions. Finally, the actual evaporation is projected to increase significantly with rate of 20.3% under SSP3-7.0 and greatest 27.0% for SSP5-8.5 by the end of the century. It is important to note that the changes in evaporation respond to global mean temperature rise consistently in terms of similar spatial pattern for all the scenarios where stronger increase found in the Cold and Polar regions. The increase in precipitation is overruled by enhanced evaporation over the region. However, this study reveals that the CMIP6 models can simulate temperature better than precipitation over the Belt and Road region. Findings of this study could be the reliable basis for initiating policies against further climate induced impacts in the regional scale.

In this study, a systematic survey of cultural airborne fungi was carried out in the occurrence environments of wall paintings that are preserved in the Tiantishan Grottoes and the Western Xia Museum, China. A bio-aerosol sampler was used for sampling in four seasons in 2016. Culture-dependent and -independent methods were taken to acquire airborne fungal concentration and purified strains; by the extraction of genomic DNA, amplification of fungal ITS rRNA gene region, sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis, thereafter the fungal community composition and distribution characteristics of different study sites were clarified. We disclosure the main environmental factors which may be responsible for dynamic changes of airborne fungi at the sampling sites. The concentration of cultural airborne fungi was in a range from 13 to 1,576 CFU/m³, no significant difference between the two sites at the Tiantishan Grottoes, with obvious characteristics of seasonal variation, in winter and spring were higher than in summer and autumn. Also, there was a significant difference in fungal concentration between the inside and outside of the Western Xia Museum, the outside of the museum was far more than the inside of the museum in the four seasons, particularly in the winter. Eight fungal genera were detected, including Cladosporium, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Filobasidium as the dominant groups. The airborne fungal community structures of the Tiantishan Grottoes show a distinct characteristic of seasonal variation and spatial distribution. Relative humidity, temperature and seasonal rainfall influence airborne fungal distribution. Some of the isolated strains have the potential to cause biodeterioration of ancient wall paintings. This study provides supporting information for the pre-warning conservation of cultural relics that are preserved at local sites and inside museums.

Nebkhas, discrete mounds of sand and vegetation, are a common landscape feature critical to the stability of desert ecosystems and supported by limited precipitation. Nebkha morphology and spatial pattern vary in landscapes, but it is unclear how they change along precipitation gradients in arid and semi-arid regions. In this study we determined morphology and soil nutrient patterns of nebkha from different regions of northwestern China. The objective of this study was to understand zonal differences among nebkhas and how morphological characteristics and soil nutrient patterns of nebkha change along a precipitation gradient in northwestern China. Our results shows that mean annual precipitation (MAP) had significant effects on morphological characteristics of nebkhas such as height, area, and volume which significantly decreased with an increase in MAP. MAP had significant positive effects on shrub cover and species richness of nebkha. Soil nutrients such as soil organic matter (SOM), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) in the 0-10 cm layer increased with an increase of MAP, and soil nutrient content within nebkhas was higher than in inter-nebkha areas. We concluded that nebkhas are "fertile islands" with an important role in ecosystem dynamics in study regions. Further, MAP is a key factor which determined zonal differences, morphological, and soil nutrients patterns of nebkhas. However, disturbance, such as animal grazing, and planted sand-stabilizing vegetation accelerated the degeneration of nebkha landscapes. We recommend implementation of protective measures for nebkhas in arid and semi-arid areas of China.

Water is the most important limiting factor in arid areas, and thus water resource management is critical for the health of dryland ecosystems. However, global climate change and anthropogenic activity make water resource management more difficult, and this situation may be particularly crucial for dryland restoration, because of variation in water uptake patterns associated with artificial revegetation of different ages and vegetation type. However, there is lacking long-term restorations that are suitable for studying this issue. In Shapotou area, Northwest China, artificial revegetation areas were planted several times beginning in 1956, and now form a chronosequence of sand-binding landscapes that are ideal for studying variability in water uptake source by plants over succession. The stable isotopes δ¹⁸O and δ²H were employed to investigate the water uptake patterns of the typical revegetation shrubs Artemisia ordosica and Caragana korshinskii,which were planted in different years. We compared the stable isotope ratios of shrub stem water to groundwater, precipitation, and soil water pools at five layers (5-10, 10-40, 40-80, 80-150, and 150-300 cm). The results indicate that Artemisia ordosica derived the majority of their water from the 20-150 cm soil layer, whereas Caragana korshinskii obtained water from the 40-150 cm soil layer. The main water sources of Artemisia ordosica and C. korshinskii plants changed over time, from deeper about 150 cm depth to shallow 20 cm soil layer. This study can provide insights into water uptake patterns of major desert vegetation and thus water management of artificial ecosystems, at least in Northwest China.

Mountain glacier-related hazards occur worldwide in response to increasing glacier instability and human activity intensity in modern glacierized regions. These hazards are characterized by their spatial aggregation and temporal repeatability. Comprehensive knowledge about mountain glacier-related hazards is critical for hazard assessment, mitigation, and prevention in the mountain cryosphere and downstream regions. This article systematically schematizes various mountain glacier-related hazards and analyzes their inherent associations with glacier changes. Besides, the processes, manifestations, and mechanisms of each of the glacier-related hazards are summarized. In the future, more extensive and detailed systematic surveys, for example, considering integrated ground-air-space patterns, should be undertaken for typical glacierized regions to enhance existing knowledge of such hazards. The use of coupled numerical models based on multi-source data is challenging but will be essential to improve our understanding of the complex chain of processes involved in thermal-hydrogeomorphic glacier-related hazards in the mountain cryosphere.

Bacteria constitute a large proportion of the biodiversity in soils and control many important processes in terrestrial ecosystems. However, our understanding of the interactions between soil bacteria and environmental factors remains limited, especially in sensitive and fragile ecosystems. In this study, geographic patterns of bacterial diversity across four sandy grasslands along a 1,600 km north-south transect in northern China were characterized by high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Then, we analyzed the driving factors behind the patterns in bacterial diversity. The results show that of the 21 phyla detected, the most abundant were Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria and Firmicutes (average relative abundance >5%). Soil bacterial operational taxonomic unit (OTU) numbers (richness) and Faith's phylogenetic diversity (diversity) were highest in the Otindag Sandy Land and lowest in the Mu Us Sandy Land. Soil electrical conductivity (EC) was the most influential factor driving bacterial richness and diversity. The bacterial communities differed significantly among the four sandy grasslands, and the bacterial community structure was significantly affected by environmental factors and geographic distance. Of the environmental variables examined, climatic factors (mean annual temperature and precipitation) and edaphic properties (pH and EC) explained the highest proportion of the variation in bacterial community structure. Biotic factors such as plant species richness and aboveground biomass exhibited weak but significant associations with bacterial richness and diversity. Our findings revealed the important role of climate and salinity factors in controlling bacterial richness and diversity; understanding these roles is critical for predicting the impacts of climate change and promoting sustainable management strategies for ecosystem services in these sandy lands.

The Ecological-living-productive land (ELPL) classification system was proposed in an effort to steer China’s land pattern to an ecological-centered path, with the development model shifting from a single function into more integrated multi-function land use. The focus is coordinating the man-land contradictions and developing an intensive, efficient and sustainable land use policy in an increasingly tense relationship between humans and nature. Driven by socioeconomic change and rapid population growth, many cities are undergoing urban sprawl, which involves the consumption of cropland and ecological land and threatens the ecological balance. This paper aims to quantitatively analyze the critical effects of ELPL changes on eco-environmental quality according to land use classification based on leading function of ecology, living and production from 1990 to 2015 with a case study of Xining City. Also, four future land use scenarios were simulated for 2030 using the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model that couples human and natural effects. Our results show a decrease in productive land (PL) and an increase in ecological land (EL) and living land (LL) in Xining City. Forestry ecological land (FEL) covered the top largest proportion; agriculture productive land (APL) showed the greatest reduction and urban and rural living land (U-RLL) presented a dramatic increase. The eco-environmental quality improved in 1990-2010, mainly affected by the conversion of APL to FEL and GEL. However, the encroachment of U-RLL into APL, other ecological land (OEL) and FEL was the main contributor to the decline in eco-environmental quality in 2010-2015 as well as the primary reason for the increase area of lower-quality. The Harmonious Development (HD)-Scenario, characterized by a rational allocation of LL and PL and a better eco-environment, would have implications for planning and monitoring future management of ELPL, and may represent a valuable reference for local policy-makers.

The active-layer soils overlying the permafrost are the most thermodynamically active zone of rock or soil and play important roles in the earth-atmosphere energy system. The processes of thawing and freezing and their associated complex hydrothermal coupling can significantly affect variation in mean annual temperatures and the formation of ground ice in permafrost regions. Using soil-temperature and -moisture data obtained from the active layer between September 2011 and October 2014 in the permafrost region of the Nanweng'he River in the Da Xing'anling Mountains, the freeze-thaw characteristics of the permafrost were studied. Based on analysis of ground-temperature variation and hydrothermal transport characteristics, the thawing and freezing processes of the active layer were divided into three stages: (1) autumn-winter freezing, (2) winter freeze-up, and (3) spring-summer thawing. Variations in the soil temperature and moisture were analyzed during each stage of the freeze-thaw process, and the effects of the soil moisture and ground vegetation on the freeze-thaw are discussed in this paper. The study's results show that thawing in the active layer was unidirectional, while the ground freezing was bidirectional (upward from the bottom of the active layer and downward from the ground surface). During the annual freeze-thaw cycle, the migration of soil moisture had different characteristics at different stages. In general, during a freezing-thawing cycle, the soil-water molecules migrate downward, i.e., soil moisture transports from the entire active layer to the upper limit of the permafrost. In the meantime, freeze-thaw in the active layer can be significantly affected by the soil-moisture content and vegetation.

From 2008 to 2010, a total of 15 snow pit samples were collected from 13 mountain glaciers in western China. In this study these samples are used to determine the spatial distribution of insoluble particle concentrations and dust deposition fluxes in western China. The results show that the mass concentrations of insoluble particles exhibit high spatial variation and strongly decrease (by a factor of approximately 50) from the north (Tienshan Mountains) to the south (Himalayas). However, the insoluble particles concentrations at the southeastern Tibetan Plateau (TP) sites are also high and approximately 30 times greater than those in the Himalayas. The spatial distribution of the dust flux is similar to that of the mass concentrations; however, the high dust deposition rate in the southeastern TP is very significant as a result of the extensive snow accumulation (precipitation) in this region. The average sizes of the insoluble particles at each site generally exhibit bimodal distributions with peaks at approximately 5 μm and 10 μm, which can be explained as resulting from dust emissions from regional and local sources, respectively. The enrichment factors for most of the elements measured in insoluble particles are less than 10 at all of the study sites, indicating primarily crustal sources. However, the sites located in the peripheral mountains of western China, such as the Tienshan Mountains and the Himalayas, are characterized by high levels of certain enrichment elements (e.g., Cu, Zn, Cr, and V) indicative of sources related to the long-range transport of pollutants.

The Tianshan Mountains is a wet island in arid central Asia, and precipitation amount across the mountains is much larger than that in the surrounding low-lying areas. To investigate the regional water cycle in arid central Asia, stable isotope composition in precipitation has received increased attention during the past decades. This paper reviewed current knowledge of observed and simulated stable isotope ratios in precipitation across the Tianshan Mountains. The temperature effect of stable isotopes in precipitation has been widely accepted in arid central Asia and can be applied to paleoclimate reconstruction using ice cores. The seasonality of precipitation isotopically enriched in summer months and depleted in winter months is usually attributed to westerly-dominated moisture, but different trajectory paths to the northern and southern slopes of the Tianshan Mountains can still be modelled. The proportional contribution and its uncertainty of surface evaporation and transpiration to local precipitation can be estimated using the isotope approach, and transpiration plays a dominant role in recycled moisture for oasis sites. The impact of below-cloud evaporation on precipitation stable isotopes on the southern slope is usually larger than that on the northern slope.

The sub-cloud evaporation effect refers to the evaporation process for raindrops that fall from the cloud base to the ground, which is usually accompanied by depleted light isotopes and enriched heavy isotopes in the precipitation. Based on 461 event-based precipitation samples collected from 12 weather stations in the Qilian Mountains and the Hexi Corridor from May to August of 2013, our results indicated that sub-cloud evaporation has a great influence on the δ¹⁸O of precipitation, especially in small-amount precipitation events. In May, June, July, and August the δ¹⁸O composition was enriched by 35%, 26%, 39%, and 41%, respectively, from the cloud base to the ground. This influence clearly strengthened with temperature rise, from the Qilian Mountains to the Hexi Corridor. When falling raindrops are evaporated by 1.0% in the Qilian Mountains and the Hexi Corridor, the composition of δ¹⁸O would be enriched by 1.2% and 2.6%, respectively. Temperature dominated the sub-cloud evaporation in the Qilian Mountains, whereas relative humidity controlled it in the Hexi Corridor. These results provide new proofs of the evolutional process of stable isotopes in precipitation in arid regions.

Due to global warming, glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are experiencing widespread shrinkage; however, the mechanisms controlling glacier variations across the TP are still rather unclear, especially on the northeastern TP. In this study, a physically based, distributed surface-energy and mass-balance model was used to simulate glacier mass balance forced by meteorological data. The model was applied to Laohugou No. 12 Glacier, western Qilian Mountains, China, during 2010~2012. The simulated albedo and mass balance were validated and calibrated by in situ measurements. The simulated annual glacier-wide mass balances were -385 mm water equivalent (w.e.) in 2010/2011 and -232 mm w.e. in 2011/2012, respectively. The mean equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) was 5,015 m a.s.l., during 2010~2012, which ascended by 215 m compared to that in the 1970s. The mean accumulation area ratio (AAR) was 39% during the two years. Climatic-sensitivity experiments indicated that the change of glacier mass balance resulting from a 1.5 ℃ increase in air temperature could be offset by a 30% increase in annual precipitation. The glacier mass balance varied linearly with precipitation, at a rate of 130 mm w.e. per 10% change in total precipitation.

Haloxylon ammodendron, a representative C₄ succulent xerophyte and salt-secreting plant, is widely used in vegetation reestablishment programs to stabilize shifting sand, and is one of the dominant shrubs in the shelter belt used to control desertification in the desert-oasis ecotone in northwestern China. In this study, we collected soil samples in an age sequence of 0-, 2-, 5-, 13-, 16-, 31-, and 39-year-old H. ammodendron plantations to assess the effects of the shrub on soil fertility and salinity. Results show that SOC and total N concentrations increased significantly with increasing plantation age and increased 5.95- (in the interspaces) to 9.05-fold (under the canopy) and 6.15- to 8.46-fold at the 0?5 cm depth at the 39-year-old plantation compared with non-vegetated sandy land. Simultaneously, H. ammodendron establishment and development resulted in significant salt accumulation in the surface layer. On average, total soil salt content at the 0?5 cm and 5?20 cm depth increased 16.8-fold and 4.4-fold, respectively, compared with non-vegetated sandy land. The increase of total salt derived mostly from the accumulation of SO {}_4^{2-} , Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ with H. ammodendron development. The accumulation in salinity was more significant than the increase in fertility, suggesting that improved soil fertility did not limit the impact of salinization. The adverse effect of salt accumulation may result in H. ammodendron plantation degradation and impact community stability in the long run.

In semi-arid areas of China, gravel and sand mulch is a farming technique with a long history. In this study, a sample survey was conducted on long term gravel sand mulch observational fields in the Northwest Loess Plateau to determine the effects of long term mulch on soil microbial and soil enzyme activities. We found that after long term gravel-sand mulch, compared with bare ground, soil organic matter, alkali nitrogen, conductivity decreased, while pH and soil moisture increased. Urease, saccharase and catalase decreased with increased mulch thickness, while alkaline phosphatase was reversed. The results of Illumina MiSeq sequencing shows that after gravel-sand mulch, the bacterial and fungal community structure was different from bare land, and the diversity was reduced. Compared with bare land, the bacteria Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria abundance increased with increased thickness, and Actinobacteria was opposite. Also, at the fungal genus level, Fusarium abundance was significantly reduced, and Remersonia was significantly increased, compared with bare land. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that soil environmental factors were important drivers of bacterial community changes. Overall, this study revealed some of the reasons for soil degradation after long term gravel-sand mulch. Therefore, it is recommended that the addition of exogenous soil nutrients after long term gravel-sand can help improve soil quality.

Based on salt-frost heave tests of sulfate saline soil under repeated freeze-thaw cycles, this paper discusses the mechanism of the salt-frost heave under long-term freeze-thaw cycles. The results show that the salt-frost heave can be restricted considerably by loads, and there is a critical load for the salt-frost heave cumulative effect. Under this load, peak values of salt-frost heave approach a constant, and the residual values become 0. There is no longer structure heave or cumulative effect of saline soil exposed to freeze-thaw cycles under the critical load. Taking cumulative effect into account in calculations of salt-frost heave, a salt-frost heave model under freeze-thaw cycles is developed.

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is an important component of ice cores but is currently poorly characterized. DOM from one Holocene sample (HS, aged at 1600-4500 B.P.) and one Last Glacial Maximum sample (LS, aged at 21000-25000 B.P.) from the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core were analyzed by ultra-high resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS). CHO compounds contributed 50% of the compounds identified in negative-ionization mode in these two samples, with significant contributions from organic N, S, and P compounds, likely suggesting that marine DOM was an important source in these samples. Overall, the chemical compositions are similar between these two samples, suggesting their consistent DOM sources. However, subtle differences in the DOM between these two samples are apparent and could indicate differences in source strength or chemistry occurring through both pre- and post-depositional processes. For example, higher relative amounts of condensed carbon compounds in the HS DOM (5%), compared to the LS DOM (2%), suggest potentially important contributions from terrestrial sources. Greater incorporation of P in the observed DOM in the LS DOM (22%), compared to the HS DOM (13%), indicate more active microbiological processes that likely contribute to phosphorus incorporation into the DOM pool. Although these two samples present only a preliminary analysis of DOM in glacial/interglacial periods, the data indicate a need to expand the analysis into a broader range of ice-core samples, geographical locations, and glacial/interglacial periods.

Worldwide examination of glacier change is based on detailed observations from only a small number of glaciers. The ground-based detailed individual glacier monitoring is of strong need and extremely important in both regional and global scales. A long-term integrated multi-level monitoring has been carried out on Urumqi Glacier No. 1 (UG1) at the headwaters of the Urumqi River in the eastern Tianshan Mountains of Central Asia since 1959 by the Tianshan Glaciological Station, Chinese Acamedey of Sciences (CAS), and the glaciological datasets promise to be the best in China. The boundaries of all glacier zones moved up, resulting in a shrunk accumulation area. The stratigraphy features of the snowpack on the glacier were found to be significantly altered by climate warming. Mass balances of UG1 show accelerated mass loss since 1960, which were attributed to three mechanisms. The glacier has been contracting at an accelerated rate since 1962, resulting in a total reduction of 0.37 km² or 19.3% from 1962 to 2018. Glacier runoff measured at the UG1 hydrometeorological station demonstrates a significant increase from 1959 to 2018 with a large interannual fluctuation, which is inversely correlated with the glacier's mass balance. This study analyzes on the changes in glacier zones, mass balance, area and length, and streamflow in the nival glacial catchment over the past 60 years. It provides critical insight into the processes and mechanisms of glacier recession in response to climate change. The results are not only representative of those glaciers in the Tianshan mountains, but also for the continental-type throughout the world. The direct observation data form an essential basis for evaluating mountain glacier changes and the impact of glacier shrinkage on water resources in the interior drainage rivers within the vast arid and semi-arid land in northwestern China as well as Central Asia.

Cryogenic wedges developed due to very cold, rather arid conditions during the maximum of the last cold event when the drying up of the neighboring China Sea resulted in the failure of the East Asian Monsoon. As the climate ameliorated and the Monsoon rains reappeared, ice-wedges developed. Further warming permitted thawing of the ice infillings accompanied by replacement of the ice by sediments partly from the host ground as well as from the surface by wind or sheet wash. In cases of extreme surface water flow on slopes after 10 ka B.P., small baydjarakhs typically c. 50 cm high developed, only to have the resulting hollows infilled by sediments carried by wind and/or sheet wash. These shallow structures form a network on top of many of the cryogenic wedges. This complex history makes dating the ages of the wedges difficult using OSL methodology. Unfortunately, past field work ignored the problem of the angle of the cut face to the direction of the wedge infilling when sampling the contents of the narrow wedges, resulting in potential contamination of the samples with the host sediment. Sampling of the larger deposits should be alright, but the likelihood of contamination makes the interpretation of the resulting OSL dates from the narrow wedges questionable. Primary wedges consisting of primary mineral infillings should still have similar OSL dates with depth for a given wedge, but the distinction between ice-wedge infillings and soil wedges is difficult since both can exhibit older dates of the infillings with depth. The available data suggests that ice-wedges were significantly more common than sediment-filled primary wedges. A protocol to avoid having to obtain large numbers of OSL dates by more careful field sampling and the use of grain size determinations is provided in the Appendix.

Black Carbon (BC), as a driver of environmental change, could significantly impact the snow by accelerating melting and decreasing albedo. Systematic documentation of BC studies is crucial for a better understanding of its spatial and temporal trends. This study reviewed the BC studies in the ice core and remote lake sediments and their sources in the northern hemisphere. The literature surveyed points to around 2.9 to 3.7 times increase of BC in the European Alps and up to a three-fold increase of BC in the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau (HTP) after the onset of industrialization in Europe and Asia, respectively. BC concentration from Greenland ice core showed seven times increase with an interrupted trend after 1950's. South Asian emissions were dominant in the HTP along with a contribution from the Middle East, whereas Western European and local emissions were responsible for the change in BC concentration in the European Alps. In the Arctic, contributions from North America, Europe and Asia persisted. Similarly, a historical reconstruction of lake sediments records demonstrates the effects of emissions from long-range transport, sediment focusing, local anthropogenic activities, precipitation and total input of flux on the BC concentration.

For most mountain glaciers, chemical components in snowfall are subject to the elution process under the influences of meltwater before they are preserved in ice, creating difficulties for interpreting ice core records. To understand the formation process of ice core records and analyze the influences of meteorological factors on the ice core resolution, we measured ion concentrations of snowpacks from 2003 to 2006 in the PGPI (Program for Glacier Processes Investigation) site of Urumqi Glacier No. 1. The ion concentration variation in snowpack exhibits apparent seasonality. In summer, the higher snowmelt rates due to air temperature rise intensify dilution and lead to an exponential decrease in ion concentrations as the accumulated positive temperature increases. In winter, the snow ion concentrations are stable and low as a result of reduced temperature and rare precipitation. Many ions from summer precipitation are leached out by meltwater, and only the precipitation that occurs at the end of the wet season can be preserved. Through tracking the evolution of magnesium ion peaks in the snowpack, it is concluded that the ice core resolution is one year on Urumqi Glacier No. 1, albeit 70% of the concentration information is lost.

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) play important roles in the carbon (C) balance in arid regions. Net C balance of BSCs is strongly dependent on rainfall and consequent activation of microbes in the BSCs. The compensation-rainfall size for BSCs (the minimum rainfall amount for a positive net C balance) is assumed to be different with BSCs of different developmental stages. A field experiment with simulated rainfall amount (SRA) of 0, 1, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mm was conducted to examine the C fluxes and compensation-rainfall size of BSCs in different parts of fixed dunes in the ecotone between the Badain Jaran Desert and the Minqin Oasis. We found algae?lichen crust on the interdunes and crest, algae crust on the leeward side, and lichen?moss crust on the windward. Even a small rainfall (1 mm) can activate both photosynthesis and respiration of all types of BSCs. The gross ecosystem production, ecosystem respiration, and net ecosystem exchange were significantly affected by SRA, hours after the simulated rainfall, position on a dune, and their interactions. The rapid activation of photosynthesis provides a C source and therefore could be responsible for the increase of C efflux after each rewetting. C-uptake and -emission capacity of all the BSCs positively correlated with rainfall size, with the lowest C fluxes on the leeward side. The compensation rainfall for a net C uptake was 3.80, 15.54, 8.62, and 1.88 mm for BSCs on the interdunes, the leeward side, the crest, and the windward side, respectively. The whole dune started to show a net C uptake with an SRA of 5 mm and maximized with an SRA of about 30 mm. The compensation-rainfall size is negatively correlated with chlorophyll content. Our results suggest that BSCs will be favored in terms of C balance, and sand dune stabilization could be sustained with an increasing frequency of 5?10 mm rainfall events in the desert?oasis transitional zone.

aturated hydraulic conductivity and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity which are influenced by soil are two important factors that affect soil water transport. In this paper, data supplied by the Chinese Academy of Sciences are used to determine true unsaturated hydrology values. Furthermore, in combination with observed, model simulation and experimental data, an improved saturated hydraulic conductivity parameterization scheme is carried out in CLM4.5 at a single point in the summer. The main results show that: (1) After improving saturated hydraulic conductivity in CLM4.5 through a parameterization modification, it is found that shallow layer soil moisture increases compared to the initial value; and (2) The numerical values of unsaturated hydraulic conductivities in the model are obviously larger than experimental values. By substituting the Brooks-Corey soil water characteristic curve into the Mualem model, the value of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is modified; (3) By using the modified value, it is found that the attenuating magnitude of simulated soil moisture caused by each rainfall event is reduced. The soil moisture variation in shallow layers (5, 10 and 20 cm) could be better displayed.

The measurement of pile axial load is of great significance to determining pile foundation design parameters such as skin friction and end bearing capacity and analyzing load transfer mechanisms. Affected by the temperature and ice content of frozen ground, the interface contact relationship between pile foundation and frozen soil is complicated, making pile axial load measurements more uncertain than that in non-frozen ground. Therefore, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the current pile axial load test methods. Four methods are systematically reviewed: vibrating wire sensors, strain gauges, sliding micrometers, and optical fiber strain sensors. At the same time, the applicability of the four test methods in frozen soil regions is discussed in detail. The first two methods are mature and commonly used. The sliding micrometer is only suitable for short-term measurement. While the Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain gauge meets the monitoring requirements, the Brillouin optical time-domain reflectometer (BOTDR) needs further verification. This paper aims to provide a technical reference for selecting and applying different methods in the pile axial load test for the stability study and bearing capacity assessment of pile foundations in cold regions.

This study was conducted to investigate the qualitative and quantitative phytochemical content of the crude extracts of Archidium ohioense, Pelekium gratum, and Hyophila involuta with different alcoholic solvents (ethanol, methanol, Seaman's Schnapps, fresh oil-palm wine, and fresh Raffia-palm wine). The mosses were collected from their natural populations on the central campus of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The yield of the extracts was weighed for all the solvents, and the qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the extracts were carried out using standard methods. The results of phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts from the mosses showed the presence of saponins, cardiac glycosides, triterpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids. The quantitative phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts showed that ethanolic extracts of Hyophila involuta had the highest flavonoid content (288.37±0.10 mg RE/g), and Raffia-palm-wine extracts of Hyophila involuta had the highest saponin content (224.70±0.02 mg/g), while the methanolic extract of Archidium ohioense had the highest cardiac glycosides content (63.71±0.14 mg/g), and the Raffia-palm wine extract of Hyophila involuta had the highest alkaloids content (102.50±0.12 mg/g). Raffia- and oil-palm wines were observed to be the most effective solvents for all the mosses studied, followed by Seaman's Schnapp, while methanol and ethanol were less effective. The study concluded that the extracts of the mosses studied contain pharmacologically active constituents that can be used for therapeutic purposes.